Essay Writing 101
You have a question. Let's build an answer.
You have rewritten that sentence six times.
We can work with this.
This guide takes you through understanding an essay task, developing an idea, using evidence, and writing something a reader can follow. It also explains citations, footnotes, reference lists, and bibliographies from the beginning.
For students writing competition entries and academic essays, with a separate note on creative and reflective writing where the expectations differ.
You do not need to sound like a philosopher who has swallowed a dictionary.
You need something worth saying, a reason to say it, and a clear way to explain it.
First: this is not a personal statement
A personal statement explains you in relation to an opportunity: your motivation, preparation, experiences, or goals. An essay develops an answer to a question, interprets an issue, or creates an effect through language and form. A research paper may investigate a question and report what its evidence shows.
They can overlap, but they are not interchangeable. A personal statement does not need to turn into a mini research paper, and an analytical competition essay should not become a list of your achievements. Before writing, identify which job the piece has to do.
This guide focuses on competition and academic essays. For applications, use Clariva's Personal Statements 101 guide.
The three-minute reset
Before opening a research tab, write three lines:
- What am I being asked to work out?
- What do I currently think, and why?
- What evidence or reasoning could change my mind?
Your first answer is allowed to be wrong. It is a starting point, not a blood oath.
1.Before the essay, read the instructions
Open the organiser's current website. Read the prompt, which is the question or instruction, and the rubric, which explains how entries are assessed if one is published.
Then make a short requirements note:
- What exact question or theme must I address?
- What form is allowed: argument, analytical article, reflection, story, or another form?
- What are the eligibility rules and deadline, including the time zone?
- What is the word limit? Do headings, quotations, notes, and references count?
- Is a citation style specified? Are hyperlinks required instead?
- Are there formatting, file-naming, anonymity, or submission requirements?
- What help, collaboration, or AI use is permitted?
A competition may have separate rules for different age groups or categories. Use the instructions for the one you are entering.
Make a one-page competition brief
Put this beside you while you write:
| Exact prompt | Copy it without "improving" the wording |
|---|---|
| Task words | Explain, assess, compare, argue, reflect, or create |
| Intended reader | Judge, academic audience, magazine reader, or general public |
| Required form | Analytical essay, article, philosophical essay, personal reflection, or creative work |
| Evidence rules | Sources, hyperlinks, quotations, footnotes, or no research required |
| Limit and submission | Word count, format, anonymity, deadline, and time zone |
This brief stops a common problem: researching for one kind of essay and submitting another. It also gives you something to return to when your draft starts wandering into a different essay entirely.
Read the verbs carefully
Explain asks you to make something understandable. Evaluate asks you to judge it against relevant considerations. Compare asks you to examine meaningful similarities and differences. To what extent asks how far a claim holds and where its limits are.
The surrounding wording matters. Do not reduce every prompt to "write everything I know about this topic."
Try this fictional prompt
The task
To what extent should schools restrict students' access to smartphones during the school day?
You need to consider the extent and conditions of a restriction. "Phones have advantages and disadvantages" is a starting observation, not yet an answer.
If the instructions are unclear, check the official FAQ or contact the organiser. Do not borrow last year's rules without checking them.
Formatting is not the exciting part. Neither is discovering that your excellent essay was entered in the wrong category.
Do the unglamorous checks first. They are much cheaper than rewriting 2,000 words on submission day.
2.Different competitions reward different things
There is no universal winning-essay formula. Here are examples from published criteria and guidance. They illustrate differences; check the current rules before entering.
| John Locke Institute | Knowledge, evidence, argument, originality, structure, style, persuasion, and engagement with strong counterarguments. [1] |
|---|---|
| Harvard International Review Academic Writing Contest | Balanced, nuanced, well-researched international analysis. It rejects opinion pieces and mere collections of facts. [2] |
| International Philosophy Olympiad | Relevance, philosophical understanding, persuasive argument, coherence, and originality. [3] |
| Scholastic Art & Writing Awards | Originality, skill, and an emerging personal voice or vision. The chosen writing category also matters. [4] |
So is it facts or big thinking?
Usually, the useful question is what kind of support your claim needs.
If you claim a policy improved attendance, you need suitable evidence about attendance. If you claim a policy is fair, you need to explain what you mean by fairness and defend that judgment. Statistics alone cannot settle every question about values.
Broader thinking might mean identifying an assumption, connecting two ideas, or noticing that a proposed solution creates another problem. Explain the connection instead of simply adding more topics.
What if my category is creative or reflective?
Follow its brief. Voice, scene, imagery, form, or reflection may do work that a thesis and counterargument do in an analytical essay. The argument-building sections here are most useful for academic and analytical tasks. Do not force a story into an argumentative template.
3.Look for past entries. Read like a writer.
Search the organiser's website for previous winning or shortlisted entries, judge commentary, and sample submissions. Try the competition name with "winning essays," "past entries," or "judging criteria."
Prefer clearly identified entries and official commentary. A random post titled "This essay won everything" is not quite the same evidence.
What should I look for?
Choose a few examples from a comparable category and ask:
- How does the opening establish the question or purpose?
- What is the central idea?
- How does each section develop it?
- Where does the writer explain evidence rather than merely quote it?
- How are objections, uncertainty, or alternative interpretations handled?
- What does the conclusion add?
- What does any judge commentary actually praise?
Check the year, prompt, category, and rules. An older entry may follow a different limit or citation system.
Also look at the relationship between the question and the answer. The strongest lesson is often not "use this opening," but "this writer interpreted the prompt precisely and kept returning to it."
Do not turn the winner into a template
Study the writing decisions. Keep your own question, wording, argument, examples, and structure.
A published winner shows one successful approach. It does not prove that the opening quotation, number of paragraphs, or particular opinion caused the result.
No past essays available? Use the prompt and published criteria you can verify. You do not need access to a secret archive before you are allowed to begin.
You can still compare a credible article: identify its claim and evidence, then ask what your competition essay must do differently. An article can teach you how a topic is discussed; it is not automatically a model submission.
4.Move from a topic to an actual answer
A topic is the area you are writing about. A question identifies what you are trying to work out. A thesis is the central answer an argumentative essay develops.
Watch the idea become more precise
Topic: Smartphones in school.
Question: To what extent should schools restrict access during the school day?
First reaction: Schools should ban phones because they are distracting.
Possible working thesis: Schools should restrict non-essential phone use during lessons while providing clear exceptions for accessibility and authorised learning tasks; restrictions outside lessons require a separate justification.
That final sentence is an illustration to investigate, not an established policy recommendation. Evidence and objections may change it.
Why is it more useful?
It specifies when the restriction applies, recognises exceptions, and identifies something the writer must justify. It gives the essay a direction without pretending the research is finished.
Define important terms. Does "ban" mean no possession, no use, or no recreational use? Does "school day" include travel, breaks, and activities? Your answer may change when the terms become clear.
A fixed prompt is still fixed
You can define its terms and choose focused examples. You cannot quietly replace a broad question with an easier, unrelated one. Explain how your chosen scope helps answer the assigned question.
Treat the thesis as provisional while researching. You are allowed to change your mind. That is cheaper than defending a claim your own sources have already defeated.
If you are writing a reflective or creative essay
You may not need a traditional thesis. You still need a deliberate centre: a question, tension, image, experience, or idea that gives the piece shape. Ask what the reader is meant to notice or feel by the end.
"I wrote whatever came into my head" can describe a drafting method. It is not, by itself, an editing plan.
5.Find evidence that does a job
Research is useful when it helps you answer the question. The goal is not to accumulate impressive-looking PDFs.
Start with a few needs: a definition, relevant evidence, an explanation of a mechanism, and a serious alternative view. Clariva's Research 101 guide covers finding and evaluating sources in more depth.
What evidence fits the claim?
An empirical claim concerns what happens in the world. Look for appropriate data, research, records, or other observable evidence.
A historical interpretation may need documents from the period alongside later scholarship. Ask who created a source, for whom, and for what purpose.
A philosophical judgment needs carefully explained concepts and reasoning. A thought experiment can test an idea, but it cannot establish how common something is in real life.
For the phone question, evidence about adult office workers might be interesting. It does not automatically tell you what happens among younger students in classrooms.
Keep a source note while reading
Record the author or organisation, title, publication date, relevant page or section, URL or DOI, and the claim the source supports. Add its limitations and your own interpretation separately.
A DOI is a persistent identifier often used for scholarly publications. Save it when available.
Mark copied words as quotations immediately. Keep them separate from your own notes so you do not accidentally reuse the wording later.
Be willing to find inconvenient evidence
Search for limitations and contrary findings. Check the original source behind a dramatic statistic when you can. Read enough context to understand what was actually measured.
A citation is not a magic stamp that makes the sentence beside it true.
6.Do the thinking between the facts
Suppose you find credible evidence that phone restrictions were followed by an improvement in one school.
That would raise questions: Was the restriction responsible? Did other changes happen? Which students were affected? Would the result travel to another setting?
These are examples of questions to ask, not claims about an actual study.
A fact still needs interpretation
Explain why evidence matters to your answer. Distinguish what a source reports from what you infer. If the evidence only supports a limited conclusion, make a limited claim.
Meet the strongest objection
A counterargument is a serious challenge to your position. Harvard's Writing Center explains that considering objections can reveal a need to revise or qualify a thesis. [5]
For our example, "some people just love their phones" is a weak objection. A stronger one asks how restrictions affect students who use a device for an accessibility need.
A useful response might explain an exception and how the proposed rule would work. If the objection undermines your central reasoning, revisit the argument rather than adding a defensive sentence.
"It depends" needs a second sentence
Depends on what? Age, purpose, enforcement, available alternatives, or another factor? Explain why that factor changes your answer.
You do not need equal space for every view. Give relevant positions fair treatment and assess them according to their reasoning and evidence.
The opposing view does not become weaker because you introduce it with "Obviously, some people fail to understand…"
7.Give the reader a route through the argument
A useful outline is a sequence of jobs, not a compulsory number of paragraphs.
For our illustrative phone question, an outline might look like this:
- 1.
Define
Define the restriction being discussed and state a provisional answer.
- 2.
Examine
Examine the evidence for restricting non-essential use during lessons.
- 3.
Explain
Explain relevant exceptions and why they matter.
- 4.
Test
Test whether the same reasoning justifies restrictions during breaks.
- 5.
Conclude
Conclude with the extent of the justified restriction and remaining limits.
The evidence may require a different sequence. Adjust the plan when your thinking changes.
What belongs in the introduction?
Establish the question, why the particular issue matters, and the direction of your answer. Include necessary definitions without turning the opening into a dictionary.
A relevant detail, tension, or direct statement can work. A dramatic quotation is optional. An unsupported statistic is still unsupported when it appears in the first line.
What belongs in the body?
Each section should advance the answer. Ask, "What does this paragraph establish, and why does the next one follow?" A transition should explain a relationship, not merely announce "Furthermore."
What belongs in the conclusion?
Answer the question in light of the reasoning you have developed. Explain an important implication or limit where useful. Avoid introducing a major new claim that needs evidence you have not discussed.
Your conclusion can do more than return your introduction wearing a different jacket.
8.Build a paragraph that actually argues
For analytical writing, try claim, support, explanation, connection. Use it as a diagnostic tool rather than repeating the same sentence pattern throughout the essay.
A paragraph that stops too early
Underdeveloped
We do not know which uses matter or why usefulness settles the policy question.
A more developed piece of reasoning
Illustrative argument
This is a hypothetical example, not research evidence. It tests a blanket rule through a specific case. It does not prove that exceptions improve results or that this lesson is typical.
What would the full essay still need?
Appropriate evidence for factual claims about distraction or outcomes; attention to students who do not own phones; consideration of how the rule would operate; and a direct answer to the full prompt.
Use thought experiments to examine reasoning. Use empirical evidence to support claims about what actually happens. Label the difference clearly.
The reader should not have to build the missing argument on your behalf.
For a literary, creative, or reflective piece, replace "support" with the material that belongs to the form: a precise image, a scene, a voice, a pattern, or a carefully chosen detail. The same underlying question remains: what is this part doing, and why is it here?
9.Write clearly without losing your voice
Clear writing does not mean simple thinking. It means making your thinking possible to follow.
Two useful lessons from essayists
George Orwell challenges inflated language, stale expressions, and unnecessary words that obscure meaning. Apply the lesson by replacing vague phrases with precise ones; do not turn it into a ban on every long word. [6]
Paul Graham describes writing as a way to explore and discover ideas. Use drafting to test your thinking rather than defend your first reaction at all costs. The submitted piece must still meet the assigned task. [7]
These are writers' approaches, not competition rules.
Try one sentence
Foggy: "The implementation of restrictive measures facilitates the optimisation of educational environments."
Clearer: "The proposal aims to reduce interruptions during lessons."
The second sentence also separates an intended benefit from a demonstrated result. To say the proposal actually works, you would need support.
Revise in passes
Argument first
Does the essay answer the question? Do its claims follow?
Evidence next
Are facts accurate, sources suitable, and limitations acknowledged?
Structure next
Cut repetition and move paragraphs whose position confuses the explanation.
Language last
Read aloud. Replace empty phrases, explain technical terms, and check punctuation.
For creative or reflective work, also examine the effect of the voice, images, scenes, and structure against the brief. Do not remove a deliberate stylistic choice simply because it would be unusual in an analytical article.
The thesaurus is a reference tool, not a personality transplant.
10.When do I need a citation?
A citation tells readers where borrowed material comes from. It helps them locate the source and assess whether your use of it is fair.
Cite direct quotations, paraphrased ideas, statistics, findings, distinctive arguments, and other material taken from a source. Follow the assignment's system. [8], [9]
Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarising
Quoting: Use the author's exact words, mark them as a quotation, and give the required citation and location.
Paraphrasing: Explain a source's idea in your own wording and sentence structure. It still needs attribution.
Summarising: Condense the main point of a larger section or work. It also needs attribution.
Changing a few words while keeping the original sentence structure is not a reliable way to paraphrase. Read, understand, look away, explain the idea yourself, then check that you preserved its meaning.
Do I cite every sentence?
No. Your own reasoning does not need a source merely because it appears in an academic essay. Widely established common knowledge may not need a citation, but what counts depends on the audience and discipline. Cite specialised or disputed factual claims, and ask your teacher or organiser if uncertain.
Make the boundaries clear when several sentences draw on one source. A lone citation at the end of a long paragraph can leave the reader unsure what it supports.
What if I only read a source quoting another source?
Try to locate the original. If you cannot, use your chosen style's secondary-citation format and identify what you actually read. Do not imply you consulted a paper you never opened. MLA, for example, uses "qtd. in" for certain indirect quotations. [8]
11.In-text citations, footnotes… what goes where?
A short citation points the reader to fuller source information. The format depends on the required style. Choose that style before formatting the final draft.
APA: author and date
For a paraphrase, the usual pattern is (Surname, Year). For a direct quotation, include a location, usually (Surname, Year, p. 12) when the source has pages. For unpaginated material, use an appropriate locator, such as a paragraph number. The page number here is a format illustration. [9]
Real paraphrase example
MLA: author and page, where available
The usual pattern is (Surname 12) for paginated material. Do not invent page numbers for an unpaginated webpage. If the author's name is already in the sentence, avoid repeating it unnecessarily. [8]
Same real paraphrase
Both examples refer to Paul Graham's actual article. Its full entries appear later. [7]
Chicago notes and bibliography
A superscript number in the text points to a numbered footnote or endnote. The note identifies the source; a bibliography provides full entries at the end. Chicago also has an author-date system, so check which version is requested. [10]
Use your document editor's Insert Footnote function if footnotes are required. It manages numbering when you move text. Endnotes appear at the end rather than at the bottom of the page.
What if the organiser asks for hyperlinks?
Follow that instruction. Link the relevant words or claim to the supporting page, not to search results or a generic homepage. HIR's contest guidance is an example of a hyperlink-based approach. [2]
Do not mix three citation styles because each looked convenient at the time.
12.Build the list at the end
People sometimes use "bibliography" loosely. Check what your assignment means.
Works Cited is the usual MLA label for the works cited in your text. References is the usual APA label for the corresponding reference list. A bibliography, used in systems such as Chicago notes and bibliography, may have a broader scope depending on the instructions. Do not automatically add everything you opened. [8], [9], [10]
Build one entry at a time
First identify the source type. A journal article downloaded as a PDF is still a journal article. A report hosted on a website is still a report. "PDF" does not tell you its citation format.
Then collect the relevant details: author, date, title, publication or publisher, volume and issue where applicable, page range, and DOI or URL.
Use the version you actually consulted. For a book chapter, you may need chapter and editor details; for a report, an organisation may be the author.
Format the list consistently
APA reference lists and MLA Works Cited lists normally use alphabetical order and a hanging indent: the first line starts at the margin, with later lines indented. Apply this using paragraph settings, not repeated spaces. Use the style's spacing rules unless the organiser overrides them. [15]
Do the two-way check
For ordinary published sources, can each citation lead to the correct full entry? Can you identify where each listed source was used? Some source types have exceptions, so consult the style guide when needed.
"Google" is where you found the source. It is usually not the author.
13.APA examples you can work from
These are basic APA 7 patterns. The words "Surname," "Year," and similar labels are fields to replace, not real sources. Consult the linked guide for multiple authors and special cases.
A webpage
Omit the site name when it is the same as the author. Use n.d. when no publication date is available; do not substitute a website-wide copyright year. [11]
Reference entry
A book
Add edition information when relevant, and a DOI when available. Use the edition you read. [13]
A journal article
The article title is not italicised; the journal title and volume are. Include a DOI when available, in URL form. Some articles use an article number instead of a page range. [14]
An organisational report
An online report has more identity than its download link. Keep its title, author, date, and any report number. [11]
These entry patterns do not replace citations in the text. The short citation and full entry work together.
14.MLA and Chicago: see the difference
Do not convert between styles by moving one comma. Their ordering, capitalisation, and note conventions differ.
MLA 9: an online article
Basic pattern: Surname, First Name. "Title of Page." Website Name, publication date, URL. Include the publisher when needed; omit unavailable or inapplicable elements according to the style. [12]
Works cited entry
The access date records when the page was consulted. MLA access dates can be useful, especially for undated or changeable material; follow your assignment's expectations. [12]
Chicago: a note and a bibliography entry
The following book patterns contain fields to replace, not a real book or page citation. They follow the current notes-and-bibliography guide. [10]
First footnote pattern
Bibliography pattern
Notice that the note starts with the author's first name and points to the specific passage. The bibliography begins with the surname. A later note can use a shortened author-title form. The current Chicago guide no longer requires a publication place for ordinary book citations. [10]
What if the instructions only say "include a bibliography"?
Check the FAQ or ask whether a style is required. If none is specified, choose a recognised style suitable for the task and use it consistently. A separate guide example is not permission to ignore an organiser's requirements.
Your references should help someone find the source, not send them on a scavenger hunt.
15.Outside help, AI, and keeping the work yours
Check the competition's current policy before using a tool or accepting substantial help. Permission for one competition does not transfer to another.
HIR's published contest policy prohibits ChatGPT and other AI tools. John Locke's policy permits tools for research support and developing or testing ideas, while requiring a human author. Read the complete rules for the event and category you enter. [2], [1]
Do not assume that brainstorming, translation, paraphrasing, or grammar assistance is permitted simply because you write the final version yourself.
Keep a record of the work
Save your notes, source details, drafts, and revisions. Know which words are quotations and where each factual claim came from. Keep your own reasoning separate from summaries of other people's arguments.
When feedback is allowed, ask readers to identify unclear claims, missing support, or confusing structure. Stay responsible for the argument and wording you submit.
Never use invented evidence
A tool suggesting a plausible-looking citation does not establish that the source exists or supports your sentence.
What if I realise I used a source wrongly?
Correct it. Change the wording, find suitable support, or remove the claim. If the correction weakens your argument, revise the argument too.
The bibliography is not a guest list. Sources cannot attend just because their names sound impressive.
16.Start today. Submit carefully.
For your first writing session:
- Read one actual prompt and its current rules.
- Write the question in your own words without changing its meaning.
- Look for comparable past entries and official commentary.
- Write a provisional answer or direction to investigate.
- Find a few useful sources and save their details.
- Note one serious objection or unanswered question.
- Draft one paragraph that explains a point.
You now have something to work on. The opening sentence can wait its turn.
Before submission
- My essay answers the assigned question or fulfils the chosen category's brief.
- My claims match the strength and scope of the evidence.
- I distinguish facts, interpretations, and hypothetical examples.
- Important objections or limitations receive appropriate attention.
- Quotations are exact and paraphrases are attributed.
- Citations lead to correct entries, notes, or required hyperlinks.
- I checked source metadata, links, and quoted locations.
- I followed the rules on authorship and assistance.
- I checked what counts toward the word limit.
- I checked anonymity, file name, format, category, and deadline.
- I previewed the actual submitted file and saved confirmation.
Ready for the next step?
Return to Clariva to explore writing opportunities you are eligible for. Keep the organiser's instructions beside you as you work.
You do not need the perfect first draft. You need a first draft you can make better.
Sources used to create this guide
Checked: 10 September 2026. Competition rules and style guidance can change. Use the current instructions for your submission. These sources document this guide; they are not a bibliography to paste into your own essay.
Competition guidance
1. John Locke Institute — Global Essay Prize. Published assessment criteria and AI policy. Official guidance.
2. Harvard International Review — Academic Writing Contest. Analytical article expectations, sourcing, hyperlinks, and AI policy. Official guidance.
3. International Philosophy Olympiad — Statute. Published assessment criteria for philosophical writing. Official regulations.
4. Scholastic Art & Writing Awards — Recognition. Originality, skill, and personal voice or vision as selection criteria. Official criteria.
Writing and reasoning
5. Harvard College Writing Center — Counterargument. Using serious objections to test and refine an argument. Writing guidance.
6. George Orwell — Politics and the English Language. Advice on clarity and inflated language, hosted by the Orwell Foundation. Read the essay.
7. Paul Graham — The Age of the Essay, September 2004. Writing as exploration; also the real webpage used in citation examples. Read the essay.
Writer advice informs the drafting discussion. It does not override an assignment's purpose or rules.
Citations and reference formats
8. Purdue OWL — MLA In-Text Citations: The Basics. Author-page references and indirect citations. MLA guidance.
9. Purdue OWL — APA In-Text Citations: The Basics. Author-date references and quotation locations. APA guidance.
10. The Chicago Manual of Style — Notes and Bibliography: Sample Citations. Notes, bibliography entries, and current book-citation conventions. Chicago guide.
11. Purdue OWL — APA Reference List: Electronic Sources. Webpages, reports, dates, and electronic-source details. Electronic sources.
12. Purdue OWL — MLA Works Cited: Electronic Sources. Webpage entries and access dates. MLA source entries.
13. Purdue OWL — APA Reference List: Books. Basic book entries and editions. Book references.
14. Purdue OWL — APA Reference List: Articles in Periodicals. Journal titles, volumes, issues, page ranges, and DOIs. Journal references.
15. Purdue OWL — Reference List: Basic Rules (APA) and MLA Works Cited Page: Basic Format. Alphabetisation, spacing, and hanging indents. APA list format; MLA list format.
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